1. U.N. Doc. S/RES/808(1993); U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993).
2. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 2 of Security Council resolution 808 (1993) and Annex thereto, U.N. Doc. S/25704 ("Report of the Secretary-General").
3. IT/32/Rev. 10.
4. The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Conditions of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 Aug. 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 970 ("Geneva Convention I"); the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Conditions of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 Aug. 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 971 ("Geneva Convention II"); the Geneva Convention relative to the treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 Aug. 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 972 ("Geneva Convention III"); the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 Aug. 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 973 ("Geneva Convention IV").
5. Decision of the Trial Chamber on the Application by the Prosecutor for a Formal Request for Deferral, Prosecutor v. Tadic. Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. I, 8 Nov. 1994.
6. IT/73/Rev. 3.
7. Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion requesting Protective Measures for Victims and Witnesses, Prosecutor v. Tadic. Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 10 Aug. 1995.
8. Decision on the Defence Motion on Jurisdiction, Prosecutor v. Tadic., Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 10 Aug. 1995.
9. Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, A.C., 2 Oct. 1995 ("Appeals Chamber Decision").
10. Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion requesting Protective Measures for Witness L, Prosecutor v. Tadic. Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 14 Nov. 1995.
11. Decision on the Defence Motion on the Principle of Non-bis-in-idem, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 14 Nov. 1995; Decision on the Defence Motion on the Form of the Indictment, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 14 Nov. 1995.
12. Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion requesting Delayed Release of Recordings of the Proceedings, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 15 Nov. 1995.
13. Decision on the Defence Motion to Prevent the Contamination of Testimony, Prosecutor v. Tadic. Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 3 May 1996.
14. Decision on the Prosecution Motion to compel Disclosure of Statements taken by the Defence of Witnesses who will Testify, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 7 May 1996.
15. Decision on the Prosecution Motion to Withdraw Counts 2 through 4 of the Indictment Without Prejudice, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 25 Jun. 1996
16. Decision on the Defence Motions to Summon and Protect Defence Witnesses and on the Giving of Evidence via Video-link, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 25 Jun 1996.
17. Decision on the Defence Motion to Protect Defence Witnesses, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 16 Aug. 1996.
18. Decision on the Third Confidential Motion to Protect Defence Witnesses, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 20 Sept. 1996.
19. Decision on Fourth Confidential Motion to Protect Defence Witnesses, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 11 Oct. 1996.
20. Decision on the Defence Motion requesting Video-link for Defence Witness Jelena Gajic, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 17 Oct. 1996.
21. Decision on the Defence Motion requesting Facial Distortion of Broadcast Image and Protective Measures for Defence Witness D, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 18 Oct. 1996.
22. Order for the Prosecution to Investigate the False Testimony of Dragan Opacic, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch.II, 10 Dec. 1996.
23. Decision on Defence Motion on Hearsay, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 5 Aug. 1996.
24. Decision on Defence Motion to Dismiss Charges, Prosecutor v. Tadic,, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 13 Sep. 1996.
25. Decision on the Prosecution Motion for Production of Defence Witness Statements, Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, T.Ch. II, 27 Nov. 1996.
26. U.N. Doc. S/RES/752 (1992).
27. Report of the Secretary-General concerning the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, U.N. Doc. A/47/747 .
28. Notification ex Rule 68[sic](A)(ii)(a), filed 10 Apr. 1996.
29. Amended Notification ex Rule 67(A)(II)(a), filed 3 May 1996
30. See, for example, R. v. Dossi (1918) 13 Cr. App. Rep. 158, 87 L.K.J.B. 1024; R. v. James (1923) 17 Cr. App. Rep. 116 (Court of Appeal).
31. See Halsbury's Laws of England (London, Butterworths, 1990), Volume 11(2), para. 926.
32. Sub-rules 89(C) and (D).
33. Virginia Morris and Michael P. Scharf, An Insider's Guide to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (New York, Transnational Publishers, 1995), Vol. 1, 263.
34. See Article 342, Code of Criminal Procedure, Belgium; Section 896, Criminal Code, Denmark; Article 261, Criminal Procedure Code, Germany; Article 177, Code of Criminal Procedure, Greece; Article 188, Code of Criminal Procedure, Italy; Article 177, Code of Criminal Procedure, Portugal; Article 741, Code of Criminal Procedure, Spain.
35. See Rej., 20 Jun. 1864.
36. Cass., 9 Jun. 1969, Pas., 1969, I, 912.
37. See Claus Roxin, Strafverfarensrecht (24th ed. Munich, 1995), 90.
38. See Hoge Raad, 19 Oct. 1954, NJ 1955; Hoge Raad, 15 Nov. 1983, DD 84.132.
39. Derecho Procesal Penal, (Libreria Bosch, Madrid, 1945), Tomos II, 238.
40. See Article 347, 1977 Code of Criminal Procedure, SFRY; Article 35, 1979 Law of Criminal Procedure, China, (which requires only that the evidence be complete and reliable).
41. Decision on the Defence Motion on Hearsay, supra.
42. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 81.
43. Id.,para. 89.
44. Id.,paras. 141-142.
45. Id., para. 70.
46. Jean Pictet (gen. ed.) Commentary, Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, Convention II (ICRC, Geneva, 1960), 33 ("Commentary, Geneva Convention II"); Jean Pictet (gen. ed.) Commentary, Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Convention III, (ICRC, Geneva, 1960), 37 ("Commentary, Geneva Convention III").
47. (ICRC, Geneva, 1952) 49-50.
48. See General Assembly Resolution 46/237, U.N. Doc. A/RES/46/237.
49. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 67.
50. See Security Council resolution 713, U.N. Doc. S/RES/713 (1991).
51. Security Council resolution 757, U.N. Doc S/RES/757 (1993).
52. See Security Council resolution 827, U.N. Doc s/res/827 (1993).
53. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 70.
54. See Article 4, I.L.C. Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, ("I.L.C. Draft Code") Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-eighth session, 6 May - 26 July 1996, G.A.O.R., 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, 30, U.N. Doc. A/51/10.
55. See Appeals Chamber Decision, paras.79-85.
56. Id., para. 81.
57. Geneva Convention IV, supra.
58. Jean Pictet (gen. ed.), Commentary, Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Convention IV, (ICRC, Geneva, 1958), 47 ("Commentary, Geneva Convention IV").
59. Id., 47.
60. Georg Schwarzenberger, International Law as applied by International Courts and Tribunals (Stevens & Sons, London, 1968), Vol II, 174, 176.
61. British Manual of Military Law, Part III (The Law of War on Land), (1958), para. 501
62. Schwarzenberger, 317, supra.
63. Security Council Resolution 752, U.N. Doc. S/RES/752 (1992).
64. See Appeals Chamber Decision, paras. 73-77.
65. See Appeals Chamber Decision, para.73.
66. I.A. Shearer, Starke's International Law (11 ed., Butterworths, Sydney, 1994), 276.
67. Geneva Convention IV, supra.
68. Commentary, Geneva Convention IV, 212, supra.
69. See Appeals Chamber Decision, para.76.
70. 1986 I.C.J. Reports,14.
71. Id., para. 219.
72. Id., para. 109.
73. Id., para. 109.
74. Id., para. 115 (emphasis added).
75. Id., para. 109.
76. Id., para. 112.
77. See Commentary to Article 8, I.L.C. Draft Articles on State Responsibility, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Twenty-sixth session, Ybk I.L.C., 1974, Vol. II, Pt 1, 283-286, U.N. Doc A/9610/Rev.1.
78. Nicaragua case, supra, Sep. Op. Judge Ago, para.16.
79. See Amerasinghe, Studies in International Law (1968), 215; Wedderburn, 6 I.C.L.Q. (1957) 290
80. Appeals Chamber Decision, paras. 89, 98, 102; Nicaragua case, para. 218, supra.
81. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 94.
82. Id., para.98; Nicaragua case, para. 218, supra.
83. See Nicaragua case, supra.
84. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 134.
85. London, 8 August 1945, 85 U.N.T.S. 251.
86. See Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 138, citing the Report of the Secretary-General, para. 47, supra; see also Egon Schwelb, Crimes Against Humanity, 23 Brit. Ybk. Int'l L. 178, 178 (1946).
87. See the Report of the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties, established at the Peace Conference in Paris on 25 Jan 1919, which found, inter alia, that violations of "the elementary laws of humanity" had occurred. Reports of the Majority and Dissenting Reports of American and Japanese Members of the Commission of Responsibilities (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1919). See also Declaration of 28 May 1915 of the Governments of France, Great Britain and Russia denouncing the massacres of the Armenian population in Turkey as "crimes against humanity and civilization for which all the members of the Turkish Government will be held responsible together with its agents implicated in the massacres", quoted in Egon Schwelb, Crimes Against Humanity, 23 Brit. Ybk. Int'l L. 178, 181 (1946). See also History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of Laws of War 32-38 (The United Nations War Crimes Commission: London, 1948) ("War Crimes Commission").
88. War Crimes Commission, 188, supra.
89. Antonio Cassese, Violence and Law in the Modern Age 109 (1988).
90. See Schwelb, supra at 183-187; see also War Crimes Commission supra at 174-177.
91. Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, Germany, (1947) ("Nürnberg Judgment") 219-224.
92. Id., 253-254.
93. Id.
94. Id., 254-255.
95. Id., 254.
96. See M. Cherif Bassiouni, Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law. 7, 114-119 (Martinus Nijhoff: Dordrecht, 1992).
97. Nürnberg Judgment, 174, 218, supra.
98. Id., 218.
99. Article 5(c).
100. Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, No. 3, p. 22, Military Government Gazette, Germany, British Zone of Control, No. 5, p. 46, Journal Officiel du Commandement en Chef Francais en Allemagne, No. 12 of 11 January 1946, Art. II(c) ("Control Council Law No. 10").
101. U.N.G.A. res. 95 (I) of 11 December 1946.
102. Nürnberg Principles, Ybk I.L.C., 1950, Vols I and II.
103. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 35, supra.
104. See, e.g., the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity of 26 Nov. 1968` at Art. I (deciding that no statutory limitation shall apply to crimes against humanity, "even if such acts do not constitute a violation of the domestic law of the country in which they were committed"); I.L.C. Draft Code at Art. 18 (including crimes against humanity as a crime against peace and security of mankind) and Art. 2 (providing for individual responsibility for crimes against peace and security of mankind); the I.L.C.'s Draft Statute for a Permanent International Criminal Court, Report of the I.L.C. on the work of its Forty-sixth Session, U.N. Doc. G.A.O.R. A/49/10 ("I.L.C. Draft Statute") at Art. 20 (including crimes against humanity as a crime within the jurisdiction of the court and one which is a crime under general international law); the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ("Genocide Convention7quot;), 9 Dec. 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277, at Art. 1 (noting that genocide is a crime under international law) and Art. IV (establishing individual criminal responsibility), and the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid ("Convention on Apartheid"), 30 Nov. 1973, 1015 U.N.T.S. 243, at Art. I (declaring that apartheid is a crime against humanity and that inhumane acts resulting from apartheid are crimes violating international law) and Art. III (attaching individual international criminal responsibility for the crime of apartheid).
105. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 141
106. Id.
107. Nürnberg Charter, Art. 6(c), supra.
108. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 47, supra; see also I.L.C. Draft Code, 96, supra.
109. The Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, ("Rwanda Statute") Art. 3,U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994).
110. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 141.
111. Id., para. 78.
112. Id., para. 70.
113. Id., para. 78; see also id. para. 141.
114. Id., para. 88.
115. See Provisional Verbatim Record of the 3217th Meeting, U.N. Doc. S/PV.3217 (25 May 1993), 11 (statement of France), 16 (statement of the United States, included in which was the statement that the United States understood that the other members of the Council shared its view), 45 (where the Russian Federation used the formulation "during an armed conflict" and 19 (where the United Kingdom used "in time of armed conflict").
116. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 70.
117. Morris and Scharf, 83, supra.
118. Appeals Chamber Decision, paras. 67, 70.
119. Prosecutor pre-trial brief filed 10 Apr.1996, quoting Appeals Chamber Decision; see also Nicaragua case, para. 218, supra.
120. See Article 50(3) of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts ("Protocol I") (ICRC, Geneva, 1977); see also Fédération Nationale des Déportés et Internés Résistants et Patriotes and Others v. Barbie (Barbie case); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), ("Final Report of the Commission of Experts"), paras. 77-78, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674.
121. Appeals Chamber Decision, para. 102; see also Nicaragua case, para. 218, supra.
122. Protocol I, supra.
123. War Crimes Commission, 193, supra.
124. Henri Meyrowitz, La répression par les tribunaux allemands des crimes contre l'humanité et de l'appartenance à une organisation criminelle 282 (1960) (unofficial translation).
125. Schwelb, 191, supra.
126. Final Report of the Commission of Experts, para. 78, supra.
127. Id., para. 78.
128. (1985) I.L.R. 125.
129. Cited by the Cour de Cassation, id. 139.
130. Id., 140.
131. Id.
132. See Jean-Louis Clergerie, La notion de crime contre l'humanité, Revue du Droit Public 1251, 1251 n.3 (1988).
133. Id., 128.
134. Id., 134, 136.
135. The Prosecutor v. Mile Msksic, Miroslav Radic, and Veselin Sljivancanin, Review of the Indictment Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Case No. IT-95-13-R61, T.Ch.I, 3 Apr. 1996 ("Vukovar Hospital Decision").
136. Id., para. 29.
137. Id., para. 32.
138. See Schwelb, 191; supra; see also Memorandum of the Secretary-General on The Charter and Judgement of the Nürnberg Tribunal; History and Analysis, 67 (U.N. Publication, Sales No. 1949, V. 7).
139. Decision on the Form of the Indictment, supra.
140. War Crimes Commission, 179, supra.
141. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 48, supra.
142. Nürnberg Judgment, 247, supra, (emphasis added).
143. Vukovar Hospital Decision, para. 30, supra.
144. Report of the Committee on the Establishment of a Permanent International Criminal Court ("Report of the Ad Hoc Committee"), U.N. Doc. G.A.O.R. A/50/22 (1995) at 17.
145. I.L.C. Draft Code, supra.
146. Report of the I.L.C. on the work of its Forty-ninth Session, (1994) G.A.O.R., 49th sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/49/10, p. 76, emphasis added.
147. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-third Session, (1991) G.A.O.R., 46th sess. Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/46/10 ("I.L.C. 1991 Report"), at 265.
148. I.L.C. Draft Code, 94-95, supra.
149. See the Trial of Josef Altstötter and Others ("Justice case"), Vol. VI, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals (U.N. War Crimes Commission London, 1949) ("Law Reports") 79-80 and see the Trial of Fredrich Flick and Five Others ("Flick case"), Vol. IX, Law Reports, 51, in which isolated cases of atrocities and persecution were held to be excluded from the definition of crimes against humanity.
150. Report of I.L.C. Special Rapporteur D. Thiam, Ybk I.L.C. 1986, Vol. II, I.L.C. A/CN.4/466 ("Report of the Special Rapporteur"), para. 93, referring to the conclusion of Henri Meyrowitz.
151. Henri Meyrowitz quoted in Report of Special Rapporteur, para. 89, supra.
152. Vukovar Hospital Decision, para. 30, supra.
153. See, e.g., cases 2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 18, 23, 25, 31 and 34 of Entscheidungen Des Obersten Gerichtshofes Für Die Britische Zone in Strafsachen, Vol. I.
154. See, e.g., Barbie case supra, the Final Report of the Commission of Experts, para. 84, supra, J. Graven, Les crimes contre l'humanité, Receuil de Cours (1950) and Catherine Grynfogel, Le concept de crime contre l'humanité: Hier, aujourd'hui et demain, Revue de Droit Pénal et de Criminologie 13 (1994); but see Leila Sadat Wexler, The Interpretation of the Nuremberg Principles by the French Court of Cassation: From Touvier to Barbie and Back Again, 32 Colum. J. Trans. L. 289 (1994).
155. See the Medical Case, Vol. II Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, 181, 196-98 (Washington: US Govt. Printing Office 1950).
156. Memorandum of the Secretary-General on the Charter and Judgment of the Nürnberg Tribunal, 67, supra.
157. U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994).
158. Amnesty International, The International Criminal Court: Making the Right Choices - Part I 40 (1997).
159. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 48, supra.
160. See Provisional Verbatim Record, 11 (statement of France, listing national, ethnic, racial and religious grounds), 16 (statement of the United States, listing national, political, ethnic, racial, gender and religious grounds) and 45 (statement of the Russian Federation, listing national, political, ethnic, religious or other grounds), supra.
161. 75 I.L.R. 362-63 (1987).
162. See also Barbie case, 137, supra.
163. Bassiouni, 248-249, supra.
164. The Prosecutor v. Dragan Nikolic, Review of the Indictment Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Case No. IT-94-2-R61, para. 26, T.Ch.I, 20 Oct. 1995.
165. I.L.C. Draft Code, 94, supra.
166. Id., 13.
167. I.L.C. 1991 Report, 266.
168. Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d 232 (2nd Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 64 U.S.L.W. 3832 (18 Jun. 1996).
169. R. v. Finta, [1994] 1 R.C.S., 701.
170. Id.
171. Case No 38, Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases for the Year 1947, 100-101 (Butterworth & Co., London 1951).
172. See, e.g., Vol. I Entscheidungen des Obersten Gerichtshofes Für Die Britische Zone in Strafsachen, case 2, 6-10; case 4, 19-25; case 23, 91-95; case 25, 105-110; case 31, 122-126; case 34, 141-143.
173. Id. at case 16, 60-62.
174. OGHBZ, Decision of the District Court (Landgericht) Hamburg of 11 Nov. 1948, STS 78/48, Justiz und NS-Verbrechen II, 1945-1966, 491, 499 (unofficial translation).
175. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 54.
176. Id., para. 34.
177. See Georg Schwarzenberger, The Law of Armed Conflict 462-66.
178. War Crimes Commission, 9, supra
179. Id., 33-34.
180. Id., 38 (citing Report of the Commission on Responsibilities).
181. Id., 43-44 (citing Treaty of Versailles Art. 229).
182. Nürnberg Charter, supra.
183. Control Council Law No. 10, supra.
184. Nürnberg Judgment, 52, supra.
185. Id., 26.
186. I.L.C. Draft Code, 19, supra. See also Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (4th ed. 1990) 562; Dinstein, International Criminal Law, 20 Israel L. Rev. 206 (1985); Oppenheim, International Law (8th ed. 1993); Röling, Criminal Responsibility for Violations of the Laws of War, 12 Belgian Rev. Int'l L. 8-26 (1976) (all in agreement that the principles of the Nürnberg Charter now form a part of the body of international law).
187. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, U.N.G.A. resolution 39/46 (10 Dec. 1984).
188. Convention on Apartheid, supra.
189. Trial of Wagner and Six Others, Vol. III Law Reports 24, 40-42, 94-95.
190. Trial of Martin Gottfried Weiss and 39 Others Vol. XI Law Reports 5.
191. Vol. XI Law Reports 97-98; Vol. XV Law Reports 89; Vol. I Law Reports 43.
192. Vol. XI Law Reports 15.
193. Trial of Werner Rohde and Eight Others, Vol. XV Law Reports 51.
194. ("Justice case"), Vol. VI Law Reports 88.
195. United States of America v. Wilhelm List, et al., 1948.
196. Vol. XI Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10 1261, supra.
197. Vol. XI Law Reports 15.
198. Id.
199. Vol. VI Law Reports 84, 87.
200. Trial of the German Major War Criminals: Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nuremberg Germany, Part 22 at 493 (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office 1950).
201. Trial of Franz Schonfeld and Nine Others, Vol. XI Law Reports 69-70.
202. Id., 72.
203. See Trial of Karl Adam Golkel and 13 Others, British Military Court Wuppertal, Germany, 15-21 May 1946, Judge-Advocate's Summation, Vol. V Law Reports 53 ("it is quite clear that [concerned in the killing does] not mean that a man actually had to be present at the site of the shooting."), 45-47, 54-55 (defendants who only drove victims to woods to be killed there were found to have been "concerned in the killing"); Trial of Max Wielen and 17 Others (British Military Court, Hamburg, Germany 1 Jul. - 3 Sep. 1947 (not necessary that a person be present to be "concerned in a killing") Vol. XI Law Reports 43-44, 46.
204. Trial of Burn Tesch and Two Others, (Zyklon B case) Vol. I Law Reports 93.
205. Id., 94.
206. Id., 101.
207. Vol. VII Law Reports 49 and fn 1.
208. J. Paust, My Lai and Vietnam, 57 Mil L. Rev. 99, 168 (1972).
209. Vol. XI Law Reports 13.
210. Id., 8, 12.
211. Id.
212. Id., 15.
213. Vol. II War Crimes Reports 418.
214. Id., 419.
215. Trial of Otto Sandrock and Three Others, Vol. I Law Reports 35, 43 (1947).
216. Id., 43.
217. Case. no. 12-489, United States v. Kurt Goebell et al, Report, Survey of the Trials of War Crimes Held at Dachau,Germany, 2-3 (15 Sept. 1948).
218. Gustav Becker, Wilhelm Weber and 18 Others, Vol. VII Law Reports 67, 70.
219. Id., 71.
220. Id.
221. I.L.C. Draft Code Art. 2(3)(a) & (d) (emphasis added).
222. Id., 24 (emphasis in original).
223. I.L.C. Draft Code, 24 (emphasis in original).
224. See Bassiouni, 318, supra.
225. Henri Meyrowitz, 250, supra.
226. See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status (1992); see also Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 66-68 (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 2nd. ed. 1996).
227. Bassiouni, 317, supra.
228. Report of Counsellor Le Gunehec, 24, quoted in Cassese, Violence and Law in the Modern Age, 112, supra
229. Id.
230. See id., 110.
231. See, e.g., the Barbie case, 143, supra.
232. I.L.C. Draft Code, 98, supra.
233. Id., 99.
234. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, 17, supra.
235. Nürnberg Principles, para. 120, supra.
236. Nürnberg Judgment, 247-253, supra.
237. Attorney General of Israel v. Eichmann, 36 International Law Reports 5, 239 (1968).
238. Justice case, Vol. VI Law Reports, 39, supra (emphasis added).
239. Notes on the Justice case, id., 79.
240. Nürnberg Judgment, 237, supra.
241. See Vol. XV Law Reports 135.
242. Vol. V Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, 984, supra.
243. Id., 997, 998.
244. Id., 999, 1001.
245. Id., 1010, 1015.
246. See also Telford Taylor, Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials Under Control Council Law No. 10, 64-65 (1949).
247. Quinn v. Robinson, 783 F.2d 776, 799-801 (9th Cir. 1986).
248. Eichmann case, 277-278, 287-289, supra.
249. Barbie case, supra.
250. I.L.C. 1991 Report, 236, supra.
251. Id., 268.
252. Id., 98.
253. Bassiouni, 282, supra.
254. See Nürnberg Judgment, 248-249, supra; the Funk case, id., 305-307 (regarding the role of economic discrimination as persecution); see also United States of America v. Ernst von Weizaecker et al., Vol. XIV Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, 676-678, supra.
255. Nürnberg Judgment, 247-249, supra.
256. Id., 180-181.
257. Id., 339-40.
258. Id., 297-298.
259. Id., 300.
260. Id., 300.
261. Flick Trial, 27, supra.
262. Id., 26.
263. Notes on the Flick Trial, id., 50.
264. British Command Paper, Cmd. 6964, 85, quoted in Notes on the Flick Trial, 51, supra.
265. See, e.g., the Nürnberg Tribunal's statements in the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party case, Nürnberg Judgment, supra at 259; the Seyss-Inquart case, id., 328, 329; the Funk case, id., 305; the Frick case, id., 300; and the Goering case, id., 282.
266. Eichmann case, supra.
267. Nazi and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law, 5710/1950.
268. Summary of Eichmann case, id. at 14.
269. Nürnberg Judgment, 302, supra.
270. Id., 304.
271. Justice case, supra, 1; see also id., 51-52 (United States Military Tribunal applying Control Council Law No. 10 explained that there were four types of laws the enforcement of which it would not normally regard as being illegal).
272. Id., 52.
273. Notes on Judgment, 81, 83, supra.
274. Id., para. 56, referencing T/1403.
275. Id., paras. 56, 57.
276. Genocide Convention, supra.
277. I.L.C. Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Ybk ILC, 1954, Vol. II, 150-152, U.N. Doc. A/2673.
278. See, e.g., the Genocide Convention, Art. II, supra; the Nürnberg Charter, Art. 6(c), supra; the Tokyo Charter, Art. 5(c), supra; Control Council Law No. 10, Art. 2(c), supra; the 1996 I.L.C. Draft Code, Art. 18(e), supra; and the Nürnberg Principles, Principle IV.c, supra.
279. Report of the Secretary-General, para. 47, supra.
280. J.H. Burger, H. Danelius, The United Nations Convention Against Torture, 122.
281. I.L.C. Draft Code, 103, supra.
282. See Trial of Max Schmid, Vol. XIII Law Reports, 151-152 and notes thereto, supra.